National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, Species, Environmental Laws/Conventions/Treaties/Bodies

1972:Stockholm conference stimulated broader political and institutional changes

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change/Founded  1985 

Wildlife Protection Act  1972

The act extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir which has its own wildlife act. It defines five types of protected areas 

As of May 2004, the protected areas of India cover, roughly 4.95% of the total surface area.

viz. 

1-National Parks (103 )

2-Wildlife Sanctuaries (537)

3-Biosphere Reserves

4-Reserved and Protected forests

5-Conservation Reserves and Community reserves

6-Private Protected Areas

7-Conservation Areas

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories:

• Category Ia — Strict Nature Reserve
• Category Ib — Wilderness Area
• Category II — National Park
• Category III — Natural Monument or Feature
• Category IV — Habitat/Species Management Area
• Category V — Protected Landscape/Seascape
• Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources

1-National Parks (II)(103)

National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species.

As of July 2015, there were 103 national parks encompassing an area of 40,500 km² (15,600 sq mi) , comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area.

A national park has a defined boundary, through which no person can get into the park without an approval.The park can not be used for any reason viz. firewood, timber, fruits…etc. 

The key difference here when compared to a sanctuary is that a national Park allows no human activities inside the buffer or core zone. there maybe limited activities (other than tourism)within the tourism zone of a National park. This comes under Category 2 of the IUCN classification.Livestock grazing is not allowed in a National Park, but it can be allowed in a regulated manner in a Sanctuary. 

2-Wildlife Sanctuaries(IV)(535)

India has over 537 animal sanctuaries, referred to as Wildlife Sanctuaries. Among these, the 49 tiger Reserves        governed by Project Tiger.Latest tiger reserve is Rajaji National park in Uttarakhand.The conservative measures taken by the Indian Government for the conservation of Tigers was awarded by a 30% rise in the number of tigers in 2015.India is home to 70 percent of tigers in the world.

A wildlife sanctuary is a space that is set aside exclusively for the use of wild animals, which are protected when they roam or live in that area.It is pretty much the same as a national park, except that you’ll find indigenous people inside and human activities are permitted. This falls under the Category 4 of the IUCN Classification.It's not physically fenced to restrict the public.People can collect firewood, fruits, medicinal plants and other stuff in small scale.

There are a number of reasons to establish a wildlife sanctuary. 

In many cases, a government creates one for the purpose of protecting endangered species  with a limited territorial range. Since it is not always possible to relocate animals or breed them in captivity, protecting their natural habitat can be very important.

A sanctuary may also be established for the purpose of maintaining biodiversity, or preserving a nation's unique natural environment.

3-Biosphere Reserves(V)

These are notified areas which cover a larger area of land which may cover multiple National Parks, Sanctuaries and reserves as well. 

Ex. the Nilgiri Biosphere covers: Bandipur NP, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Silent Valley NP, Wyanad WLS, Nagarhole NP, Mukurthi NP, Sathyramangalam WLS & Reserve Forest and is usually a contiguous area. 

It will also include all the buffer and tourism zones and offers protection to not only the wildlife and flora but to the indigenous people as well. Eg. Attapadi hill tribes. 

Another important thing to note is that some controlled economic activities will be permitted in these areas - like mining and farming etc. This is a Category 5 under IUCN but will include Categories 2,3,4 in it. Also, the concept of Biosphere Reserves was first mooted by UNESCO under the Man & Biosphere program (MAB) and the various other protected areas of India that come under the various laws protect in individually.

Its purpose is to make economic development possible while conserving the biodiversity.

The most important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity together with traditional human life is the establishment of biosphere reserves.

MAB (Man and Biosphere Program)

• It was first started by UNESCO in 1971.
• Later introduced in India in 1986.

Aim

1. Studying the effects of human interference and pollution on the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
2. Conservation the ecosystems for the present as well as future.

The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves of India.

1-Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (connected to MAB)

2-Gulf of Mannar (connected to MAB)

3-Sunderbans (connected to MAB)

4-Nanda Devi National Park & Biosphere Reserve (connected to MAB) 

5-Nokrek (connected to MAB)

6-Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (connected to MAB)

7-Similipal (connected to MAB)

8-Achanakmar- Amarkantak (connected to MAB)

9-Great Nicobar Island Biosphere Reserve (connected to MAB)

10-Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve (connected to MAB)

Manas  ASSAM

Dibru-Saikhowa  ASSAM

Dehang-Dibang AR P

Khangchendzonga  SIKKIM

Great Rann of Kutch  GUJ

Cold Desert  HP

Seshachalam Hills  Andhra

Panna  MP

4-Reserve & Protected Forest(IV or VI)

These are forested lands where logging, hunting, grazing and other activities may be permitted on a sustainable basis to members of certain communities. In reserved forests, explicit permission is required for such activities. In protected forests, such activities are allowed unless explicitly prohibited. Thus, in general reserved forests enjoy a higher degree of protection with respect to protected forests.

5-Conservations Reserves(V)(66) & Community Reserves(VI)(26)

Unlike NPs and WLS, a conservation Reserve is declared by state governments. Usually the area will be owned by the government and lies near to Wildlife Sanctuaries or National Parks. These often function as a buffer zone for a protected area or a link which connects two protected areas together. However, an area will be declared as Conservation Reserve only after holding adequate consultations with the local people. (In fact, that happens with the other PAs also.) There are no regulations on the rights of the people living inside a Conservation Reserve.

Again, declared by state government, a Community Reserve can even be privately or community owned land declared so when an individual or community volunteers to conserve the area and its natural fauna and flora. Apart from protecting the natural habitat and environment, Community Reserves may also protect cultural values and practices related to the area. There are no regulations on the rights of the people living inside a Community Reserve. Till date, there are only four community reserves in the country - Kokkare Bellur Community Reserve in Karnataka, Kadalundi- Vallikkunnu Community Reserve in Kerala (both are for conserving birds), Lalwan Community Reserve and Keshopur-chhamb Community Reserves in Punjab also. 

6-Private Protected Areas

These are regions which are owned by an individual or an organisation / corporation not affiliated to the government or a communal body. Even though Indian legislation does not provide protection to such areas, some NGOs are using methods such as land trusts to help in the conservation effort, and providing limited means of protection.

7-Conservation Areas

Conservation areas are large, well-designated geographical entities where landscape conservation is undergoing, and usually contains different kinds of constituent protected areas, as well as privately owned land.

Project Tiger (1973) (49TR)

To ensure a viable population of tigers for economic, scientific, cultural, aesthetic and ecological values.

Objective

Enforcement of anti-poaching measures. 
Census and estimate of the numbers of carnivores, their prey animals. 
Habitat improvement measures

Capacity building of staff, 
Development of telecommunication and road network
Development and maintenance of other infrastructure
Research, planning and monitoring of wildlife population and spatial distribution. 
Management of ecotourism

• Same as sanctuaries. But they are monitored by NTCA under Project tiger.
• The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on ‘core-buffer’ strategy.

Core Areas

• The core areas are freed of all human activities.
• It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary.
• Collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not allowed.

Buffer Areas

• Twin objectives:

1. providing habitat supplement to spillover population of wild animals from core area.
2. provide site specific co-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for relieving their impact on core area.

• Collection of minor forest produce and grazing by tribals is allowed on a sustainable basis.
• The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest dwelling communities in forest areas.

Project Elephant (1992)(32 ER)

Elephant is an animal included in Schedule-I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. A complete ban on ivory trade was imposed in 1991.

Objective

To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors

To address issues of man-animal conflict

Welfare of captive elephants

Project Crocodile (1975)

Crocodilians were threatened in India due to indiscriminate killing for commercial purpose and severe habitat loss until enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act.1972. All three species of crocodiles (Gharial[CR], Mugger[EN] and Saltwater crocodile[LC]) in the river systems of Odisha were on the verge of extinction by the seventies. Crocodiles were very few because of ever increasing human activity in the rivers and their other traditional habitats, and consequent reduction in the extent of habitable stretches. Also, the survival rate of the crocodile hatchlings in nature is low because of predation. Piecemeal efforts were being made from the sixties onwards to save the crocodile.Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975 in different States.

Sacred Groves

• India has a history of religious/cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature.
• In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and given total protection.
• Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.
• In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare and threatened plants.

International Union for Conservation of Nature(1964)

• (IUCN) is an international organization (NGO) working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
• It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying and education.
• The organization is best known for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List, which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.
• Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.

Birdlife International

• BirdLife International is the world’s largest nature conservation Partnership.
• Together they are 120 BirdLife Partners worldwide.
• BirdLife International strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources.
• BirdLife International is the official Red List authority for birds, for the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
• It identifies the sites known/referred to as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.

CITES(1975)

• CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is also known as the Washington Convention)
• It is a multilateral treaty drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
• CITES entered into force in 1975.
• Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.
• Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties – in other words they have to implement the Convention – it does not take the place of national laws.
• Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
• Parties = 181
• Similar treaty: Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants – MIKE

IUCN Red Data List or Red Book

• The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species.
• When discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term “threatened” is a grouping of three categories: Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable.
• Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.
• Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range.
• Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
• Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
• Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
• Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered in the near future.
• Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.
• Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.
• Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

Critically Endangered Mammals

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed 50 animal species as “critically endangered”. It includes 18 species of amphibians, 14 varieties of fish, 13 birds and 10 mammals.

Union Government has announced that out of 96,000 animal species found in India more than 50 animals have been assessed as critically endangered (CR) and 310 as endangered (EN).

Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania).

Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)

Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi)

Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica)

Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)

Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira)

Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)

Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)

Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)

Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Biodiversity Hotspots

• Hot spots are the richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life of the earth. They have maximum number of endemic species.
• 35 terrestrial hot spots have been identified for the conservation of biodiversity. They occupy 1.4% of the earth’s surface and 20% of worlds the human population lives in these areas. 

To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict criteria:

1. Species endemism: the region must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics, and
2. Degree of threat: the region has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

• Each biodiversity hot spot represents a remarkable universe of extraordinary floral and faunal endemism struggling to survive in rapidly shrinking ecosystems.

The eight hottest hot spots in terms of the above factors are:

1. Madagascar
2. Philippines
3. Sundaland [South East Asia]
4. Brazil’s Atlantic Forest
5. Caribbean
6. Indo-Burma
7. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya

There are 3 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They are:

1. The Eastern Himalayas [Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Eastern Nepal]
2. Indo-Burma and [Purvanchal Hills, Arakan Yoma, Eastern Bangladesh]
3. The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

World Heritage Sites

• World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of various areas or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List”.
• The sites are designated as having outstanding universal value under the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
• This Convention, which was adopted by the UNESCO in 1972 (and enforced in 1975) provides a framework for international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural treasures and natural areas throughout the world. The first list of World Heritage state was published in 1978.
• The convention defines the kind of sites which can be considered for inscription of the World heritage list (ancient monuments, museums, biodiversity and geological heritage,), and sets out the duties of the State Parties in identifying potential sites and their role in protecting them.
• The United Nations declared 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity. It is a celebration of life on earth and of the value of biodiversity for our lives.

There are 35(27 cultural and 7 natural sites and 1 mixed) World Heritage Sites in India that are recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as on July 2016.

3 new sites "Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda University)" at Nalanda, Bihar , "The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement" (transboundary site shared by Argentina, Belgium, France, Germany, India, Japan and Switzerland) and "Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim" are inscribed in UNESCO’s World Heritage List in July,2016.

Biodiversity Conservation

• When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected. E.g. we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site) conservation.
• However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation is the desirable approach.
• Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this purpose.
• Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks.
• The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.

Protected Area Network in India

• National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
• The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation.

Reserved and Protected Forests

• As of present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way:

1. Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise.
2. In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products.

• The first reserve forest in India was Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
• Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding.

Eco Sensitive Zones

• The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEFCC stipulated that state governments should declare land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco fragile zones or ESZs under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
• The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more protection to the parks by acting as a shock absorber or transition zone.
• Eco-Sensitive Zones would minimise forest depletion and man-animal conflict.
• The protected areas are based on the core and buffer model of management.
• The core area has the legal status of being a national park.
• The buffer area, however, does not have legal status of being a national park and could be a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve.

Historic Citizen Movements to conserve Biodiversity

Chipko Movement

• It is a social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and nonviolent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from falling.
• The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
• The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest Department.
• Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the region.
• By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
• The first recorded event of Chipko however, took place in village Khejarli, Jodhpur district, in 1730 AD, when 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives while protecting green Khejri trees, considered sacred by the community, by hugging them, and braved the axes of loggers sent by the local ruler, today it is seen an inspiration and a precursor for Chipko movement of Garhwal.

Appiko Movement

• Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental conservation in India.
• The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers of the district of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar movement to save their forests.
• In September 1983, men, women and children of Salkani ‘hugged the trees’ in Kalase forest. (The local term for ‘hugging’ in Kannada is appiko.)
• Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India.

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